Theories of Reflection and Experiential Learning

 

I have been spending a lot of time expanding my knowledge of reflective and experiential learning theories lately. It is interesting returning to these theories having explored some of them when I undertook the BAPP. This time I am returning to them with a more critical, analytical eye. Previously I feel that I may have been quick to agree with them all and focus purely on the positives attached to them and not take the time to explore the theories from all angels.

Reflection essentially refers to the observations we make of our daily experiences and how we analyse those observations and learn from them. Different strategies for reflective practice have been developed by the individuals John Dewey, Kurt Lewin, Donald A Schon, David Kolb, and Jennifer Moon. Bolton's book Reflective Practice is most informative, and the following quote is a favourite of mine as it really makes sense of the process of reflection. I like the metaphorical way that Schön describes it.

Schön described professional practice as being in a flat place where we can't see very far (1987). Everyone would love to work on a high place from which all the near valleys and far hills are in view. Everyday life and work rarely has sign posts, definitive maps, or friendly police to help with directions.....We cannot stand outside ourselves and our work from our work (from the cliff), in order to be objective and clear. We work in the 'swampy lowlands' (Schön, 1987) by trial and error, learning from our mistakes....Reflective practice makes maps. Everyone needs thorough methods to sort through and learn from muddles, uncertainties, unclarities, mistakes and anxieties.

(Bolton, 2014, p.3)

I think that this quote tells us that in order for us to learn from life's experiences, we must all engage in a type of reflective practice. Through exploring key principles of reflective and experiential learning I have discovered how learning about the theories of philosophers and those key figures who have helped the evolution of reflective practice can assist with the way I reflect as an individual. In order for me to be able to employ the theories of others to my own professional practice, it was necessary for me to return to some previous research of the key figures. Below I will look at the background and work of some of these individuals and critically analyse some of these theories against my own experience of reflective practice.

John Dewey

John Dewey (1859-1952) was an American philosopher and educator. He founded the philosophical movement known as Pragmatism, was a pioneer in functional psychology and leader of the progressive movement in education in the United States. Below is a quote which indicates Dewey's main thread of interest.

The Common theme underlying Dewey's philosophy was his belief that a democratic society of informed and engaged inquirers was the best means of promoting human interests.

(Gouinlock, 2010 on https://www.britannica.com/biography/John-Dewey )

Dewey challenged previous philosophers views in his writing by indicating that everything is subject to change and that no being or aspect of nature is static. Therefore, human experience is never purely subjective because the mind is part of nature. He was fascinated by the idea of experience and how we as individuals as well as the wider world can gain from that experience through the process of reflection. The quote below is indicative of this.

Human experiences are the outcomes of a range of interacting processes and are thus worldly events. The challenge to human life therefore, is to determine how to live well with processes of change, not somehow to transcend them.

(Gouinlock, 2010 on https://www.britannica.com/biography/John-Dewey )

Dewey theories definitely speak to me and have clearly formed a basis of the many theories which were subsequently developed.  

Source: Gouinlock, James, S (2010) John Dewey:American philosopher and educator (online),Encyclopedia Britannica. Available from: https://www.britannica.com/biography/John-Dewey Accessed 11th November 2022

Kurt Lewin

Kurt Lewin (1890-1947) was a social psychologist who became most famously known for his theory of behaviour. He worked at the Faculty of The Berlin Psychoanalytical institute, then at the State University of Iowa's Child Welfare Research Station. He was the founder and director of Research Centre for Group Dynamics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge.

His theory was that unusual human behaviour was a response to environmental factors and an individual's self perception. Lewin used topical systems or maplike representations to convey his views.

He became known for the methods which are divided into steps and stages. For example his Theory of Change which he divided into 3 stages. These stages can be seen below:

Stage 1: Unfreezing

This is the stage at which a person prepares for change and anticipates the challenge of moving out of their comfort zone. Lewin developed the Force Field Analysis as a way to refer to all the surrounding factors which either encourage or discourage someone to embark on their journey of change.

Stage 2: Change or Transition

This is literally the point at which someone makes a transition towards their direction. This stage can be an extremely challenging and daunting one, as often there is a lot of fear surrounding change which must be overcome.

Stage 3: Freezing or Refreezing

This is the stage at which having made the change, a person re establishes stability with these changes in place. This point occurs when the changes have been fully accepted and embraced.

I feel that Kurt Lewin's theory has a strong visual depiction of change. This visual imagery appeals to me however, I find myself feeling that the idea of freezing when a change has occurred and been assimilated is not such a great image. It feels static and set which doesn't evoke a feeling of continuous experiential learning. For me this image is not so useful.

Sources: Connelly, Mark (No date) The Kurt Lewin change management model (online) Available from http://www.change-management-coach.com/kurt_lewin.html Accessed 9th November 2022

Eds of Encyclopedia Britannica (2008) Kurt Lewin: American social psychologist (online) Available from: https://www.britannica.com/biography/Kurt-Lewin Accessed 9th November 2022

Howard Gardner

Howard Gardner (1943-) is the John, H and Elizabeth A Hobbs Professor of cognition and Education at the Harvard Graduate School of Education. Also the adjunct professor of psychology at Harvard University and senior director of Harvard Project Zero. Gardner is most famously known in the area of education for his Theory of Multiple Intelligences. 

He created his theory, which divides intelligence into eight forms, during the 1980s. The multiple intelligences are Intra personal, inter personal, logical-mathematical, naturalist, spatial, bodily- kinaesthetic, linguistic and musical. (Gardner, 1993, Frames of Mind) Please see the diagram below.

(https://uk.pinterest.com/dianekashin/multiple-intelligences/ )

This theory has been ground breaking in all areas of education, helping people to identify their own individual ways of learning and make the most of their intelligence.

However, there are draw backs I feel as it seems unlikely that we will all be one singular type of learner. It feels that this could be somewhat restricting making people feel that they are incapable of learning in any other way than there most dominant or comfortable form. Bolton also supports and explores this possibility (2014, p.50)

Sources: Bolton, G. (2014) Reflective Practice. London: Sage Publications Ltd

Gardner, H. (1993) Frames of Mind. London: Harper Collins Publishers

David Kolb

David Kolb (1939-) is a psychological and educational therapist. With the work and theories of Dewey and Lewin, Kolb created his own theory of learning with a cycle. The cycle is divided into the following categories: concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract conceptualisation and active experimentation. The cycle is designed to help an individual to understand how they learn and at what stage they begin their learning. Everyone learns in a different way and therefore enters the cycle at a different stage.

The cycle can be seen below

(http://www.simplypsychology.org/learning-kolb.html)

I feel that there are some issues with the Kolb learning cycle and this mostly relates to the feeling that this continuous cycle is very self contained. It does not feel as though there is a great deal of space for input from others or for reflection from differing view points. It does not seem to push for deep learning or 'double loop' learning to occur. Although I feel with this awareness it can form a strong basis from which to develop experiential learning.

Source: Bolton, G. (2014) Reflective Practice. London: Sage Publications Ltd

No specific author (No date) Learning Theories: Experiential learning (Kolb) (online) Available from: https://www.learning-theories.com/experiential-learning-kolb.html Accessed 9th November 2022

Peter Honey and Alan Mumford have gone on to create their own learning styles based upon Kolb's learning cycle. They divided it into the following categories: Activist, Theorist, Pragmatist and Reflector. I identify as being between a reflector and theorist although again this is not to say that in some situations, I might not fall into another learning style.

Donald A. Schön

Donald Schön (1930-1997) was the Ford Professor of Urban Studies and education at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He trained in philosophy and became famous for his work in the development of reflective practice and learning.

He was also a pianist and clarinettist, playing in both the areas of Jazz and Chamber. This musical background fed into his academic work as the area of improvisation paralleled with his theories of reflection in action.

Schön's two most influential theories were the 'double loop learning theory' and the theory of 'reflection in and on action.' The double loop learning theory refers to the approach taken to learning from an error. A single loop approach would be to look for another strategy which will ultimately address the problem within the governing variables. Where as the double loop approach is to question the governing variables and critically analyse them. Ultimately resulting in a greater degree of change and learning.

Reflection in action refers to our ability to learn whilst in the process of our task, to self analyse, and think on our feet. In order to achieve this we must use the knowledge that we have already gathered and assimilated.

Reflection on action is when we look back on an event and think about it in retrospect drawing out a different type of knowledge from what we have done.

Donald Shon has an extremely strong foundation to his work and I find myself questioning very little of his theories. Perhaps because his argument for the strength of experiential learning is so deeply researched and expressed (Educating the reflective practitioner, 1987). He makes his theory applicable across all professions it seems to me.

Source: Schon, D. (1987) Educating the reflective practitioner. California: Jossey-Bass Inc, publishers.  

Smith M.K (2011) Donald Schön: learning, reflection and change (online) The Encyclopedia of Informal Education. Available from: http://infed.org/mobi/donald-schon-learning-reflection-change/ Accessed 11th November 2022

Jennifer Moon

Jennifer Moon works in educational development at the University of Exeter. She has worked across all levels of education, professional development and counselling. She has written a number of books exploring the theories of reflection from journal writing, practical experience and tacit knowledge. She is deeply interested in how we can learn from experience and how work and experiences can be freshly empowered through the process of reflection through journal writing.

She has developed workshops and courses on learning from experience through the process of reflection.

Moon explores the theories of Reflection and experiential learning in a most comprehendible way. 

I find her theories to be accessible. Her theory around the effect of emotion on learning has been of great value to me so far as my journey as a reflective practitioner.

Source: Moon, Jennifer A (2004) A handbook of reflective and experiential learning, theory and practice, Oxon: Routledge Falmer

My experience of Reflective Practice across Module 1 MAPP

It has been interesting returning to the theories of reflective practice over the last few months and exploring them in greater depth. I

 The following extract from Bolton's book explores the benefits in a metaphorical way:

Route finding equipment or information can only help when the traveller knows their destination. One cannot find the solution without having identified the problem accurately and precisely. This is the conundrum of reflective practice. We want to become good experienced practitioners. But to do this, we have to discover which areas of practice we need to improve, and why. We find out by exploring, experimenting and discovering, with uncertainty as the central paradox Dewey (1933a) said doubt and uncertainty is an essential element of effective reflection.

(Bolton, 2014, p.4)

I can relate very well to John Dewey's theory that art should not be something that is appreciated only at it's finished stage. He has the view that this cuts it off from the rest of the world and believes that it is only through exploring the experience of how it comes about that it can connect on a deeper level with both the creator and and surroundings. He states that

When artistic object are separated from both conditions of origin and operation in experience, a wall is built around them that renders almost opaque their general significance, with which esthetic theory deals. Art is remitted to a separate realm, where it is cut off from that association with the materials and aims of every other form of human effort, undergoing and achievement... 

We must arrive at the theory of art by means of a detour. For theory is concerned with understanding, insight, not without exclamations or admiration, and stimulation of that emotional outburst often called appreciation. It is quite possible to enjoy flowers in their coloured form and delicate fragrance without knowing anything about plants theoretically. But if one sets out to understand the flowering of plants, he is committed to finding out something about the interactions of soil, air, water, and sunlight that condition the growth of plants.

(Dewey, 2005, p 2)

Through Dewey's theory, I am reminded that the process of art is just as important as the finished piece. I think that very often as a dancer I am concerned with the performance or the audition and I miss out on essential points of learning in the process of reaching those destinations. I have found myself with more questions than answers and more interested in the learning process.

Kurt Lewin's theory of change as I mention above has caused some resistance in me this year. I used to find this theory comforting as it gave me a secure structure to hold onto in an area I find most daunting - change. However, I believe I now feel differently because this vision of the freeze state reminds me of the fight, flight and freeze response following trauma and this makes me feel uneasy around the visual image.

Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences I do find fascinating.

I feel I use a combination of a visual, bodily kinaesthetic and musical learning styles mostly. When learning choreography now, I find it much easier to learn from watching a video first, then visualising with music, then marking, then doing the movements full out. Although this is a time-consuming process, it is nevertheless the most effective strategy for learning that I have found. When I do all of these stages my ability to dance the steps increases and my overall performance is of a higher standard. It is clear that bodily and musical intelligences have a close link. In a conversation with my musician friend recently, I was interested to see that in the same way that I am led by music, those within the music profession often see music as gestures when composing or playing. Gardner himself states

Many composers, sessions among them, have stressed the close ties that exist between music and bodily or gestural language. On some analyses, music itself is best thought of as an extended gesture- a kind of movement or direction that is carried out at least implicitly within the body.

(Gardner, 1993, p 123)

My self-awareness has most certainly been enhanced by Kolb's learning cycle, knowing that I enter the cycle in the reflective observation stage has made me realise why I feel that I need to spend a lot of time preparing for what I do. In the area of teaching or performing, I always spend time in preparation for my roles or classes and if I cannot do that I am very reluctant to take on the job. Because I know that I will reach the standard I am capable of. There are great drawbacks to this because in the performing arts industry it is important to be able to adapt and jump into situations last minute. I personally find that I become very anxious when I am in those situations. But there are times when the cycle feels enclosing and unhelpful as there seems to be no external perspective to the situation.

  In Twyla Tharp's book The Creative Habit she talks about perfectionism when starting out on something. She really explores how this sort of mentality can be very creatively limiting and really must be let go.  She states:

Another trap is the belief that everything has to be perfect before you can take the next step. You won't move on to that second chapter until the first is written, rewritten, honed, tweaked, examined under a microscope, and buffed to a bright mahogany sheen. You won't dip a brush in the paint until you've assembled all the colours you can possibly imagine using in the course of the project. I know it's important to be prepared, but at the start of the process this type of perfectionism is more like procrastination. You've got to get in there and do.

(Tharp and Reiter, 2006, p 124)

I do have high levels of perfectionism still, but thankfully the courses I have undertaken on Sports psychology and Stress management have helped with this and now I try to reach excellence and avoid the term perfection at all costs.

Schön's theories around reflection-in-action are of great benefit to me currently. I was in a place before embarking on my MA where I felt I should know all the answers and often felt unequipped to deal with the day to day challenges of work. But what this theory does for me is remind me that life is a continuous process of reflection and learning, we never arrive and that is how it should be. Shon's theories show us the world we could create if everyone was reflecting on their lives and work. Most of us are engaging with this theory yet not everyone is reaching a level of awareness so that change can take place.

 Schön states that

Although reflection in action is an extraordinary process, it is not a rare event. Indeed, for some reflective practitioners it is the core of practice. Nevertheless, because professionalism is still mainly identified with technical expertise, reflection-in-action is not generally accepted-even by those who do it-as a legitimate form of professional knowing.

(Bolton, 2014 p 69)

Reflection on action occurs all the time in my mind. But sometimes I find it hard to order these thoughts and get them written up in journal form. Lately I have noticed more than ever that I have been unable to write some days. I have needed to collage, move, dance and find other ways to reflect. 

Tacit knowledge

 Schön indicates that the majority of professionals engage with a form of tacit knowledge without knowing it.:

In my analysis...I begin with the assumption that competent practitioners usually know more than they can say. They exhibit a kind of Knowing-in-practice, most of which is tacit.

(Schön, 1983, p viii)

In my BAPP work I wrote this about my experience of tacit knowledge:

'What I am specifically interested in is tacit knowledge in relation to stage performance. Often I find that I surprise myself with what I achieve on the stage, it is as though I have experienced things that I did not know and am able to bring these into the portrayal of a character. I have found this especially with the role of Lady Capulet in Romeo and Juliet. There are many emotions which the character must show that I feel like I have not experienced in real life. Yet when I am on the stage I feel as though I have. This interests me a lot and I will continue to delve into this topic.'

Looking at this now I can still relate to it strongly. In many ways now I have experienced more emotions in real life, but I always feel like I lived it in dance first. Hard to explain how or why.

But since being unwell I have had less confidence in my tacit knowledge of technique. I and to learn to work with my body again in a different way and there are times when I feel as though I am not in tune with it, and this affects my tacit knowledge deeply. An area of interest and wonder which I hope to explore further in module 2.

Muscle memory

Equally I feel that the trauma of illness and all that came with it has affected my muscle memory in some areas as well. There are times when I simply can't reach that place of flow because the choreography requires conscious thought. Tuffnel and Crickmay say that muscle memory enables us to engage in a much deeper level as is suggested in the quote below:

Without a sense of the body, of sensation and feeling, we lose connection to what is around and within us, to the immediate and present moments of our lives. To move out of our heads and into the sensory world of the body awakens us not only to sensation but also to a slower, deeper landscape beneath the surface of everyday awareness, a landscape of feeling, memory, impulse and dream.

(Tufnell and Crickmay 2008, p 3)

Of muscle memory I previously wrote:

'I think that as an individual, I like to be able to get to a stage when I can fully embody the choreography that I am doing. This is not always possible as I have found that in the profession there is very little time and often you must go on stage not feeling entirely confident, however, it is my belief that it is only with full embodiment that the audience will really feel what you want them to feel.' 

Time is still an issue, but now I also feel that my brain and body are in a different place and there are times when I miss the feeling of being able to fully embody the choreography I dance. But this may also be because I am now required to dance much harder roles than I was previously. I strive to find this place of flow once again.

Tharp says:

Muscle memory is one of the more valuable forms of memory, especially to a performer. It's the notion that after diligent practice and repetition of certain physical movements, your body will remember those moves, years, even decades, after you cease doing them. In the dance world, muscle memory comes into play everyday; we couldn't survive without it.

(Tharp and Reiter, 2006,p 64)

The more I engage with the area of reflective and experiential learning the more I am encouraged to notice the patterns that frequent my mind surrounding not being enough, failing and generally being hyper critical of my life and work. There is something most enlightening about realising that every mistake and every challenge is where the true learning is going to take place. That this is part of our journey, and we must not shy away from these occurrences but instead discover what seeds may be floating amongst the fallen leaves.

Bibliography

Books

Bolton, G. (2014) Reflective Practice, fourth Edition, London: Sage Publications Ltd

Dewey, J. (2005) Art as Experience, first published 1934, second Perigee edition. New York: Perigee Publishing Group

Gardner, H.(1993) Frames of Mind: The theory of Multiple Intelligences, first published 1984, second edition London: Fortana Press

Moon, J. (2004) A handbook of reflective and experiential learning, theory and practice, Oxon: Routledge Falmer

Tharp, T. and Reiter, M (2006) The Creative Habit, second edition, New York: Simon and Schuster Paperbacks

Schon, D. (1983) The reflective practitioner, United States of America: Basic Books, Inc.

Schon, D, (1987) Educating the reflective practitioner, San Fransisco: Jossey-Bass Inc. 

Tufnell, M. and Crickmay, C. (2008) A widening field: journeys in body and imagination, first Published 2004. London: Dance Books

Websites

Connelly, Mark (No date) The Kurt Lewin change management model (online) Available from http://www.change-management-coach.com/kurt_lewin.html Accessed 9th November 2022

Eds of Encyclopedia Britannica (2008) Kurt Lewin: American social psychologist (online) Available from: https://www.britannica.com/biography/Kurt-Lewin Accessed 9th November 2022

Gouinlock, James, S (2010) John Dewey:American philosopher and educator (online),Encyclopedia Britannica. Available from: https://www.britannica.com/biography/John-Dewey Accessed 11th November 2022

No specific author (No date) Learning Theories: Experiential learning (Kolb) (online) Available from: https://www.learning-theories.com/experiential-learning-kolb.html Accessed 9th November 2022

Smith M.K (2011) Donald Schon: learning, reflection and change (online) The Encyclopedia of Informal Education. Available from: http://infed.org/mobi/donald-schon-learning-reflection-change/ Accessed 11th November 2022

Pictures

https://uk.pinterest.com/dianekashin/multiple-intelligences/

http://www.simplypsychology.org/learning-kolb.html